Introduction
Diabetes Mellitus in the United States
Diabetes affects almost 26 million Americans—over 8% of the US population—and is the seventh leading cause of death in the United States [1]. Among Latinos, the proportion affected is approximately 11.8%, an almost 70% greater prevalence than in the general population [2]. According to the American Diabetes Association, the total cost of diabetes-related expenditures in 2012 was almost a quarter of a trillion dollars, translating to an average medical expenditure of almost $14,000 per patient [3]. A major source of these expenditures is hospitalizations, which have been shown to cost more for patients who have diabetes [4]. According to 2011 data from California where over a third of the population is Hispanic [5], the average cost of a hospitalization for a patient with diabetes exceeded that of a nondiabetic patient by over $2,000 [4]. Almost a third of all hospitalizations in California that year were for diabetic patients, a proportion which rose to over 40% among Latinos and was higher than that of African- or Asian-Americans [4].
Contributing to the problem is a lack of health literacy among Hispanics [6] which increases the risk of poor glycemic control [6]. Latinos have been shown to lag behind African-Americans and Whites in important health behaviors such as checking blood glucose levels, performing diabetic foot exams, and getting recommended vaccinations [7]. These findings are compounded by the feelings of many Latino patients that the care they receive from providers is frequently substandard [8] and problematic [9]. The number of Latino healthcare providers relative to the population is also small [10], and the resulting language challenges can lead to decreased patient compliance and worse outcomes [8]. Altogether, Latinos have worse glycemic control than the general diabetic population [11], are 60% more likely to start dialysis, and 50% more likely to die from diabetes than NHWs in the United States [12].
The Potential for mHealth
mHealth is a promising new treatment modality for diabetic patients that has been shown in studies to improve glycemic control [2,13,14] It has also been found to be a potential source for cost savings and reduced burden on the health care system [15]. Though mHealth is broadly defined by the World Health Organization as “medical and public health practice supported by mobile devices” [16], the arrival of the smartphone in 2007 has caused an exponential proliferation of apps which have garnered increased attention among clinicians, researchers, and the federal government [17,18]. To date, there are few apps targeted specifically at Latinos with diabetes. This represents a missed opportunity, as over 90% of Latinos use a cell phone regularly - almost half of which are smartphones [19] - and they are just as likely as Whites to own a smartphone [20]. Given the challenges facing Latino diabetics with respect to health literacy and performance of health behaviors in the face of limited access to quality care, increased use of glucose tracking apps could facilitate reductions in poor outcomes in this population.
Technology and the Latino Community
Evidence suggests that Latinos already have the capacity to use mobile technology to increase healthy behaviors. The Text4Baby Program, for example, involved the dissemination of text messages to pregnant women and mothers of newborns. A study by the National Latino Research Center revealed improvements in participants’ health knowledge, appointment attendance, and immunization adherence. Satisfaction with this program was also found to be higher among Spanish speakers [21]. The TExT-MED (Trial to Examine Text Messaging for Emergency Department patient with Diabetes) study in Los Angeles involved a similar intervention in which text messages were sent to low income inner-city patients with diabetes, almost 75% of whom were Latino. Results included improvements in healthy eating, increased physical activity, and higher medication adherence [22]. These studies suggest that simple interventions can be accepted and lead to improvements in healthy behaviors in Latinos, including those with diabetes.
Despite these encouraging findings, there is little research into the use of glucose tracking apps by Latinos or on which app functionalities are the most pertinent to this population. Recommendations endorsing specific apps for Latinos have been put forth by various organizations [23,24] though these are not research-based. There is therefore an unmet need for scholarly research into how mobile phone technology can best benefit Latinos suffering from diabetes.
Goals of the Study
The goals of our study were twofold. First, we sought to identify the most prevalent functionalities of the most popular glucose tracking apps currently available. Second, we aimed to survey the usage of glucose tracking apps among Latinos visiting a popular Spanish language health website. In light of the challenges facing Latino diabetics, we attempted to set forth some basic guidelines for apps ideally suited to this population.
Discussion
Summary of Study
In this study, we set out to characterize the most prevalent functionalities for popular glucose tracking apps and survey Latinos on their use of these apps. We went about this task by selecting and reviewing 20 of the most popular glucose tracking apps on the market as of January, 2014 and posting an online survey on one of the most popular Spanish language health websites on the Internet. In our app review we found blood glucose analytical instruments (eg graphs, flow sheets, statistics) to be the most prevalent functionalities. These were frequently accompanied by documentation of dietary and biometric data as well as functionalities enabling users to share data on social media. In contrast, a minority of apps were available in Spanish, contained reminder functionalities encouraging adherence to blood glucose monitoring and medication regimens, or allowed download of data directly from glucometers.
Our online survey found that approximately three percent of respondents with diabetes used a glucose tracking app, a proportion that is higher than the estimated global average of 1.2% [27]. Of these, the number of respondents running their apps on Android products was nearly double the number of those running their apps on Apple products. Most of the apps used were free to download. Fifteen percent of respondents reported not knowing their diabetes status and fewer than half of self-reported type I diabetics reported using insulin. These findings support the findings from other studies [6,28-30] that there is a lack of diabetes knowledge and awareness among Latinos.
Comparison With the Literature
At least three studies have been completed on the prevalence of various glucose tracking app functionalities using systematic search strategies [31-33]. Two of the studies reviewed apps limited to one platform. The 2011 article by Chomutare et al [31] is the only study of the three to consider both major platforms, reviewing 49 iPhone apps and 33 Android apps. In comparison with this 2011 review, we found a significantly greater prevalence of multiple functionalities including medication management, diet management, physical activity monitoring, and disease-related reminders. The starkest contrast between the earlier review and ours was the prevalence of social media. Only 15% of apps had social media functionalities in the 2011 review versus 65% of apps in our review. This contrast most likely reflects the growing role of social media in daily life [34].
A limited number of studies have evaluated glucose tracking app use in a specific segment of the population. An article by Arnhold et al [35] studied the usability of glucose tracking apps among patients ages 50 years and older. Our study, while not providing empirical evidence as to which app functionalities work best for a specific subgroup, agrees with Arnhold et al’s finding that there is a need for further investigation into how mobile phone apps can be tailored to specific target audiences.
How Glucose Tracking Apps Designed for Latinos Should be Different
Overview
Latinos lag behind NHWs in levels of health literacy, which in turn has been shown to affect glycemic control [6]. This population also tends to have worse self-management practices [36], including lower levels of physical activity and inconsistent self-monitoring of blood glucose [37]. Glucose tracking apps should address these disparities in knowledge and practice using carefully selected functionalities tailored to this population.
Education
Education has been shown to be an underrepresented feature of most glucose tracking apps [31] but should be included in apps for Latinos considering both the lower overall levels of educational attainment of Latinos relative to NHWs [38] as well as the findings of our survey. Content should be provided at a basic reading level and available in both English and Spanish. In addition, audio or video-based educational materials could complement text, as they may help bypass literacy barriers and would likely be well accepted among Latinos who are already major consumers of online multimedia [19].
Self-Management Functionalities
Self-management functionalities focusing on blood glucose monitoring, diet, and exercise should be easy to use and motivational. The number of functionalities on a single app should be kept to the minimum necessary to encourage consistency without decreasing usability [32]. Self-management practices can be encouraged by minimizing the burden of data entry and by employing reminders (eg to check blood glucose or take medication) to minimize unintentional nonadherence [39,40].
Data Entry Burden
Data entry burden can be reduced through the use of simplified graphic interfaces with adjustable text and icon sizes for elderly or visually impaired users [41] as well as glucometer connectivity. Glucometer connectivity is currently lacking in most popular apps according to our study which found that only 20% of the apps reviewed had this capacity.
Reminders
Reminder functionalities were available in fewer than third of the apps reviewed, though our survey found that the majority of app users surveyed used reminders regularly. Automated reminders can serve several functions, not the least of which could include boosting medication adherence and self-monitoring of blood glucose. Periodic reminders for feet exams, physician visits, and yearly flu vaccines can also be incorporated. Besides conveying instructions, reminders can be educational and/or motivational in a manner similar to the text message interventions used in the Text4Baby and TExT-MED programs. App content should always be culturally appropriate [42] and mindful of social determinants of health as well as the social and cultural heterogeneity within the Latino population itself [43].
Limitations of the Study
Our app review included only a small fraction of the glucose tracking apps available for download on the iTunes app store and Google Play. Methods used to select apps were subject to proprietary ranking algorithms by Apple and Google and thus the apps reviewed may not represent those of the highest quality as judged by more impartial measures such as third party ratings. To these authors’ knowledge, however, no such rating system exists for glucose tracking apps. Nevertheless, there may have been apps of high quality that were not reviewed.
For the survey portion of the study, respondents on the HolaDoctor website constituted a convenience sample which may not reflect the entire Hispanic population. With its very large visitor base of over 1 million monthly unique users, the HolaDoctor website does, however, fairly represent the online Hispanics in the United States. Furthermore, evidence suggests that the majority of Latinos in the United States already use the internet in some fashion [44]. Nevertheless, this does largely exclude the elderly, those with less than a high school education, and those who are predominantly Spanish speaking [44], groups who shoulder a significant proportion of the diabetes burden within the Latino population as a whole. Given that 17% of the respondents in our survey reported providing care for a family member with diabetes, however, it is possible that the benefits of diabetes apps may extend beyond the immediate user to family members, specifically the elderly. Respondents living in countries other than the United States were also permitted to complete surveys, and this may affect the generalizability of the study’s conclusions given the inherent variation in social, cultural, and economic conditions between countries. The effect of this variation is likely to be minor, however, as the vast majority of responses (93%) came from the continental United States or Puerto Rico.
Finally, a number of the online surveys contained internally inconsistent responses. In particular, fewer than half of type I diabetics reported using insulin. Such incongruous responses may be due to respondents’ confusion with the survey questions, though the authors suspect it stems more from a lack of knowledge and awareness regarding what type of diabetes they have, if any.
Conclusion
There is a significant need for diabetes apps targeted at Latinos. Given the high prevalence of diabetes in the Latino population and the CDC estimating a 50% lifetime diabetes risk for Latino children born in the year 2000 [45], apps designed specifically for this population will be needed to realize the full potential of mHealth to improve the lives of those affected by this disease.